#1
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Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Fig. 1 Lividity, or livor mortis, represents the postmortem settling of blood within the dependent skin, due to gravitational forces. Note that areas of skin exposed to pressure do not develop lividity estimate the postmortem interval, but such estimates are typically not very helpful. One of the most scientifically reproducible methods for estimating the postmortem interval in cases of badly decomposed bodies that have been infested with insects involves forensic entomology. The most common insect types examined are the numerous species of blowflies that lay their eggs on corpses. Each species of blowfly has a specific and known life cycle involving eggs, maggots, pupae, and adult flies. By determining the species and the age of the largest maggots on a body, forensic entomologists are able to identify where the body has been lying and determine an estimated postmortem interval. ![]() Fig. 2 Most bodies that have been stored for some time in a morgue show posterior lividity. Impressions from clothing and other objects may be seen Fig. 3 Impressions from a tied bow can be seen causing patterned blanching on the abdomen ![]() Fig. 4 Impressions from a brassiere can be clearly seen causing patterned blanching of the chest. Although it had been removed by police at the scene blanching from a cigarette lighter can be seen on the left breast (arrowhead) ![]() Fig. 5 Blanching had occurred under the elastic band of underpants with lividity marking the elevated writing of the manufacturer’s name Fig. 6 Initially lividity blanches when pressure is applied. Here pressure is being applied with a fingertip Fig. 7 Blanching of lividity which corresponds to >Fig. 6 indicates that the lividity has not yet become ‘‘fixed’’ ![]() Fig. 8 An unusual pattern of lividity developed in a decedent who died while lying on an egg-crate mattress pad Fig. 9 This man died facedown, lying atop his hand. Note in the next image (Fig. 10) how the blanched area corresponds to his hand Fig. 10 An area of blanching underneath the decedent’s hand (see Fig. 9) ![]() Fig. 11 Most epileptics who die unexpectedly are found facedown, raising the possibility of asphyxiation being involved in the mechanism of death. In the case shown there is intense anterior lividity with blanching of the face and abdomen, as well as the skin under the hand. This can be better seen in the next figure (Fig. 12) ![]() Fig. 12 Movement of the hand in a young male who died facedown, demonstrating blanching of the skin under the hand due to compression of small vessels that prevented the accumulation of blood ![]() Fig. 13 After several hours, lividity becomes ‘‘fixed,’’ such that movement of a body from one position to another may become evident because the lividity pattern is inappropriate for the current body position. This man has blanching of the abdomen indicating that he had been facedown for some time after death ![]() Fig. 14 Lividity occurs in dependent portions of the skin, where dark, pinpoint Tardieu spots may form reflecting intense congestion ![]() Fig. 15 An area of more intense lividity with numerous Tardieu spots ![]() Fig. 16 A variety of factors may result in different appearances of the color of lividity . In this case, note the different colors of the lividity on the upper back. These differences are likely the result of subtle environmental changes after death, such as lying on an EMS backboard in the emergency department for several hours, and then being transferred to the morgue cooler Fig. 17 Occasionally skin that is being compressed will blanch and then dry out. This is called parchmenting and can be seen under a sweater in the figure. It is a typical finding under ligature marks in hanging deaths ![]() Fig. 18 Rigor mortis affects even the muscles that attach tosmall skin hairs, giving the appearance of ‘‘goosebumps’’ or ‘‘flesh’’ (cutis anserinus) Fig. 19 If a body is in full rigor mortis, the presence of ‘‘inappropriate’’ rigor mortis may indicate that the body has been moved. The woman obviously did not die in this body position ![]() Fig. 20 The original body position of the woman depicted in Fig. 19 is shown. The death investigator rolled her body onto her back in order to illustrate the fact that she was in full rigor mortis ![]() Fig. 21 On occasion rigor mortis may occur very rapidly, as in this drowning victim who is still clutching vegetation, so-called cadaveric spasm ![]() Fig. 22 Slight corneal clouding noted in a decomposing body ![]() Fig. 23 The dark discoloration of the sclera (the white part of the eye) is a common early postmortem change, known as tache noire ![]() Fig. 24 Dark discoloration and drying of the lips is common following death ![]() Fig. 25 Sun exposure following death can actually lead to dark discoloration of the exposed skin surface, a so-called ‘‘postmortem suntan’’ or ‘‘sunburn’’ ![]() Fig. 26 One of the earliest signs of decomposition is green discoloration of the lower right abdominal quadrant (arrow) ![]() Fig. 27 Changes of early decomposition can be seen on the forearm with red lines from blood breakdown in superficial veins. Such venous marbling can become quite extensive ![]() Fig. 28 Faint early marbling of the chest wall above an area of lividity ![]() Fig. 29 As decomposition proceeds, marbling of the skin may become more apparent ![]() Fig. 30 More advanced marbling can be seen on the right shoulder and chest Fig. 31 Skin blistering is another common change early in the decomposition process ![]() Fig. 32 Extensive skin blistering with fluid accumulation on the side of a markedly putrefied corpse ![]() Fig. 33 Skin slippage can also occur relatively early in decomposition Fig. 34 Purge fluid is frequently expelled from the mouth and nose Fig. 35 As decomposition continues, the body begins to bloat, and the skin becomes darkened. Note the dark discoloration of the lips ![]() Fig. 36 Swelling of the scrotum and abdomen occurs with putrefaction as gases accumulate from bacterial action. Numerous maggots can also be seen on the surface of the body Fig. 37 Putrefaction with skin slippage is also associated with loss of hair ![]() Fig. 38 Advanced decomposition is characterized by an extremely bloated, greasy, and darkened body. This is the decomposed body of a Caucasian individual who was not very obese during life Fig. 39 An example of a body demonstrating relatively advanced decomposition, with bloating, skin discoloration, and abundant purge fluid Fig. 40 Another example of fairly advanced decomposition. In this case, marbling, skin discoloration, bloating, and skin slippage are prominent on the trunk region Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 167 Fig. 41 Bulging of the eyes, lips and face, with protrusion of the tongue, all related to decomposition Fig. 42 Eventually, after the initial ravages of bloating decomposition have passed, the body continues to lose more soft tissue, and the process of skeletonization begins ![]() Fig. 43 An example of how tight clothing (a sock) has retarded the decomposition of skin Fig. 44 Another example of how clothing can retard the decomposition process. Note that the skin of the torso, which was covered with clothing, is reasonably intact compared to the advanced decompositional changes noted on the face and neck ![]() Fig. 45 Postmortem cockroach bite marks. Note the absence of a ‘‘vital tissue reaction’’ (i.e., there is no bleeding) Fig. 46 Ants may begin feeding off corpses very soon after death. Here groups of ants can be seen stripping skin from around an ankle. This may result in postmortem seepage of blood in dependent areas that may be confused with antemortem trauma ![]() Fig. 47 Ants may also target body orifices such as the mouth and nose ![]() Fig. 48 Lesions left by ants may resemble abrasions, accept that they are of uniform depth and have a characteristic winding ‘‘serpiginous’’ pattern, as can be seen on the chest and flank of this body ![]() Fig. 49 Postmortem fire ant bite marks, with no evidence of a vital tissue reaction ![]() Fig. 50 Multiple areas of superficial skin loss on the flank of a drowning victim due to postmortem sea lice activity. It is important not to mistake these lesions for antemortem injuries such as abrasions ![]() Fig. 51 Rodents such as rats and mice tend to concentrate on the soft tissues of the fingers, toes, and the tip of the nose. Bites can be recognized by the paired grooves from the upper and lower incisors and can be seen here on the side of a finger. Postmortem injuries are usually characterized by a lack of blood, although dependent body parts may passively exude blood from postmortem wounds. Occasionally such injuries may occur before death in an unconscious individual. This has been termed the Popiel phenomenon, after a mythical Polish king who was devoured by rats. In these cases a vital reaction may be seen microscopically. This consists of an infiltrate of inflammatory cells in the tissues Fig. 52 Relatively extensive skin damage produced by postmortem rat activity. Note the dry, yellow appearance of the defects, indicating that they are postmortem in nature ![]() Fig. 53 Bite marks on the fingers produced by the feeding activity of mice ![]() Fig. 54 Toes nibbled by rats after death showing the typical paired gnaw marks with trimming of the toenails Fig. 55 Domestic pets, such as dogs, will sometimes feed on a dead body, with large portions of soft tissue being removed Fig. 56 Early postmortem predation by a dog with bite marks evident at the edge of the soft tissue defect ![]() Fig. 57 Postmortem predation by domestic dogs often involves an elderly recluse who has not been seen for some time. Dogs tend to target the face and neck, stripping the skin and subcutaneous tissues Fig. 58 Loss of facial features after dog predation may make visual identification impossible Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 179 ![]() Fig. 59 Cats may also devour the soft tissues of the face, neck, and hands after death ![]() Fig. 60 If the genitalia have been targeted by dogs, as in the case of this young adult male, the possibility of a sadistic sexual murder may be considered on initial examination of the scene ![]() Fig. 61 Removal of a head by a dog has occurred with gnawing through the frontal bone to gain access to the brain ![]() Fig. 62 A dog has eaten the face, cranial contents, and chest cavity organs. Determining whether organic illness played a role in the deathmay not be possible given the loss of the heart, lungs and brain ![]() Fig. 63 In this case, a dog has devoured most of the chest and has started on the upper abdomen exposing the liver and spleen ![]() Fig. 64 A body found at a beach with the left cheek removed by seabird activity ![]() Fig. 65 If flies are present in the local environment, they will lay eggs on the body, often in or near body orifices such as the nostrils. Multiple brown spots on the skin surface have been produced by flies and are not blood spatter ![]() Fig. 66 An adult fly on a decomposing body. Flies are known to lay eggs on dead bodies within minutes following death Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 183 ![]() Fig. 67 An adult fly, a pupa case, and a maggot ![]() Fig. 68 A fly with maggots. The brown pupal cases indicate that maggot infestation has been present for some time Fig. 69 Although there is no appreciable decomposition, the decedent was the victim of multiple gunshot wounds and had blood on his face and embedded in his mustache. This was found to be a suitable place for flies to lay eggs Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 185 ![]() Fig. 70 Enormous numbers of maggots may be found on corpses completely obscuring underlying features Fig. 71 Extensive maggot activity on the face of a decomposing man ![]() Fig. 72 The typical appearance of a decomposing body after extensive blowfly activity with marked loss of soft tissues Fig. 73 Autolysis, putrefaction, and animal (including insect) activity all contribute to the ultimate loss of soft tissues Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 187 ![]() Fig. 74 Skeletonized remains may be found with clothing and other materials that may provide clues as to possible identity ![]() Fig. 75 Decomposition may be greatly accelerated by high environmental temperatures. An example of this is a case with partial skeletonization that occurred outdoors in the summertime after only 10 days Fig. 76 In dry conditions bodies will dry out and mummify, with the skin becoming leatherlike. Here, drying of the fingers and hand can be seen Postmortem Changes and Time of Death 8 189 ![]() Fig. 77 Mummification of the toes and feet Fig. 78 Another example of ‘‘mummification’’ Fig. 79 Mummification of the internal organs with dehydration. Drying of blood vessels and body cavities may make toxicological analysis difficult Fig. 80 Mummification can result in very hard, leathery skin Fig. 81 Finger mummification, wherein the soft, fleshy part of the finger has shrunken away from the overlying fingernail ![]() Fig. 82 In damp and cool conditions adipocere may develop. This is a malodorous greasy breakdown product of fat that is also known as grave wax. The thigh of this drowning victim has been converted to adipocere Fig. 83 Adipocere can also occur in warm, wet environments ![]() Fig. 84 In addition to other organisms mold will also grow on corpses given the right conditions. Multiple colonies of fungal organisms can be seen growing on the surface of this body ![]() Fig. 85 Fungal colonies growing on the face of a decomposing corpse ![]() Fig. 86 A lacelike configuration of precipitated minerals, referred to as ‘‘miliaria,’’ is sometimes seen covering various decomposing internal organs, most commonly the liver ![]() Fig. 87 Postmortem erosion of the stomach wall may occur with rupture, so-called gastromalacia ![]() Fig. 88 A classic postmortem injury, such as this abrasion, lacks a vital tissue reaction and appears yellow ![]() Fig. 89 Postmortem mutilation of a corpse with minimal bleeding (Photo courtesy of Dallas County Medical Examiners Office and Dr. J McClain) Source: The Atlas of Forensic Pathology for Police, Forensic Scientists, Attorneys and Death Investigators (2012) ![]() References: Byard RW. Autopsy problems associated with postmortem ant activity. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2005;1:37–40. Byard RW, James RA, Gilbert JD. Diagnostic problems associated with cadaveric trauma from animal activity. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2002;23:238–44. Byard RW, Gehl A, Anders S, Tsokos M. Putrefaction and wound dehiscence. A potentially confusing postmortem phenomenon. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2006;27:61–3. Byard RW, Farrell ER, Simpson E. Diagnostic yield and characteristic features in a series of decomposed bodies subject to coronial autopsy. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2008;4:9–14. Byrd JH, Castner JL, editors. Forensic entomology – the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2001. Dix J, Graham M. Time of death, decomposition and identification – an Atlas. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2000. Galloway A, Birkby WH, Jonew AM, Henry TE, Parks BO. Decay rates of human remains in an arid environment. J Forensic Sci. 1989;34:607–16. Haglund WD, Sorg MH, editors. Forensic taphonomy – the postmortem fate of human remains. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1997. Henssge C, Knight B, Drompecher T, Madea B, Nokes L. The estimation of the time since death in the early postmortem period. London: Edward Arnold; 1995. Hewadikaram KA, Goff ML. Effect of carcass size on rate of decomposition and arthropod succession patterns. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1991;12:235–40. Komar DA. Decay rates in a cold climate region: a review of cases involving advanced decomposition from the medical examiner’s office in Edmonton, Alberta. J Forensic Sci. 1998;43:57–61. Mann RW, Bass WM, Meadows L. Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies. J Forensic Sci. 1990;35:103–11. Mellon PF, Lowry MA, Micozzi MS. Experimental observations on adipocere formation. J Forensic Sci. 1993;28:91–3. Prahlow JA, Linch CA. A baby, a virus, and a rat. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2000;21:127–33. Schoenly K, Griest K, Rhine S. An experimental field protocol for investigating the postmortem interval using multidisciplinary indicators. J Forensic Sci. 1991;36:1395–415. Vass AA, Barshick SA, Sega G, Caton J, Skeen JT, Love JC, Synstelien JA. Decomposition chemistry of human remains: a new methodology for determining the postmortem interval. J Forensic Sci. 2002;47:2002. Zhou C, Byard RW. Factors and processes causing accelerated decomposition in human cadavers. J Forensic Leg Med. 2011;18:6–9. |
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#2
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
very nice post i wanna these book ![]() |
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#3
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Excellent information. ![]() |
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#4
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Pic 5: This corpse is sponsored by Calvin Klein. ![]() |
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#5
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Calvin would be proud. ![]() This is an awesome post. Thanks. |
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#6
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
cool post ![]() |
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#7
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
good post! great book :o)
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#8
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Love that hand imprint ![]() ![]() |
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#9
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
Brilliant post, thanks!
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#10
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Re: Postmortem Changes and Time of Death
One of the coolest posts, thanks! ![]() |
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